Over the past few weeks, here in our blog articles, we’ve been looking at several different types of architectural details at building facades. Generally, in historic times, the building facade was the part of greatest architectural aesthetic importance. In other words, builders and architects would apply the highest level of detail or ornature to the design of building facades, particularly at front street facing facades. The outline for today’s article follows below:
(This trend continues today even with budget mass-produced tract homes out in the counties: the cheap developers put a face brick skin on the front facades but slap cheap vinyl siding on the rear of the houses, in our current day.) Distinctions Applied in the Construction of Historic Brick Building FacadesThe level of increased attention isn’t just limited to the architectural details, even the brick that spans across the entirety of the building facade with generally different at the finest built front facade for example historic pressed clay bricks would be used instead of the more basic “common” bricks, at the exposed exterior facing at the front facades. This particular anecdote is important because it meant that not only the brick itself was different, but the much thinner mortar joint had a different composition than the mortar joint used almost everywhere else in the building. The implications are that today, it’s important for contractors to understand this distinction and use a compatible type of mortar at each specific type or class of location. this applies to specific repairs, spot repointing, tuckpointing and wholesale restoration. This type of attention, in the original front facade construction though wasn’t just limited to the brick, and here in our discussion today we take a closer look at the facade cornices have historic brick buildings in Washington D.C. Here at the folly link, you can see a past post on our encyclopedia about historic metal cornices. Purpose of Cornices at Historic Building FacadesCornices at the principal building facade appear like large aesthetic decorations. They do have a significant visual impact, but they also serve another purpose to deflect to divert water away from the front facade in non-wind-driven rain conditions. In most cases, the typical cornice will project away from the front facade of the building at least an additional 12 inches. In some cases, cornices can extend multiple feet in length away from the front facade. When typical low wind rainfalls occur the majority of that water will run off the roof but not run down the face of the wall because that face of the wall is slightly protected by the projecting roof cornice above. Over long periods of times such as decades and centuries this can have a major difference in the amount of deterioration that the wall experiences. in most cases especially with masonry walls, although they are very durable and largely water resistant, they’re not entirely water resistant and they will have significant deterioration after many hundreds of rainfalls if they’re not protected by a projecting element above such as a cornice. Coordinating or Paired Facade DetailsIn addition to the decorative cornices, which also provided a functional purpose, there are several other typically common details That often compliment or pair with cornices at the building front facades. In our future blog articles we will continue discussing these individual elements with greater detail. In the upcoming week, for example come on we will discuss the press tin festoons at frieze areas of the front facade, gothic arch brick chimney rain caps, and gable roofs at front facades. Beyond the traditional placement at the top of front walls, cornices were also used in applications in other areas of building facades. For instance, the area below projecting water tables at front mansard roofs provides an opportunity for incorporating decorative yet functional cornices. This not only adds a layer of elegance to the transition between roof sections but also contributes to effective water management. Additionally, the tops of front porch or lower level bump-out roofs, especially those projecting out from the main building facade, serve as ideal candidates for the installation of cornices. Here, the decorative elements not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of the projecting space but also offer practical benefits by providing additional coverage and defining architectural features. By using varied locations for cornice placement, architects and builders creatively integrated these elements into the overall design, marrying functionality with ornamentation across different sections of a building’s facade. Materials used to Build Facade CornicesIn historic times, particularly during Washington, DC row home construction, various materials were used to craft architectural cornices. Ferrous alloy trims or sheet metals, such as tin, were commonly used alongside wood for these ornate features. Ferrous alloys, excluding wrought iron, provided strength and malleability for intricate designs. Wood cornices, characterized by a series of dentil molds or applied corbelling resembling structural supports, were prevalent in certain architectural designs. However, it’s worth noting that sheet metals and wood details, while found built near each other, were not commonly combined in cornice construction during that era. This variety in cornice construction, contributing to both aesthetic diversity in historic row home facades. Today, in contemporary times, modern cornices have expanded their material palette to include lightweight composites and synthetic options, offering further versatility in design and alternatives in cost, yet in most cases modern or historic cornices are extremely expensive today. Reach out to Our CompanyInfinity Design Solutions is a historic restoration specialist contractor specializing in both historic masonry restoration such as tuck pointing our repointing, and brick repair. If you have questions about the architectural details or facade of your historic building in Washington DC,reach out and say hello and if we can help we’ll be glad to assist you. You can email us or call us on the telephone at the following link: contact us here. <p>The post Architectural Details in Masonry Facades – Cornices first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/architectural-details-in-masonry-facades-cornices/
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Segmented window headersIn historical brick architecture, archways support the superimposed load of the structural wall above an opening for a window or doorway. For example, historic brick masonry, the individual bricks are smaller than the window opening or door opening and if there isn’t a structural head. Or to span that opening. Then the individual bricks will, over time, fall into the opening itself and allow the portion of the wall above to collapse. The fundamental principle behind arches is their ability to distribute and transfer the weight of the structure above them, allowing for larger openings without compromising structural integrity. Archways are designed to transfer the downward force (load) from the structure above them to the supporting pillars or walls on either side. This transfer and support of the load is achieved through the compression and outward thrust of the arch. A keystone or radius at the top of the arch locks the stones or bricks in place, creating a stable and self-supporting structure. A self-supporting Roman header, in the form of a semicircular arch, is a perfect example of inherent strength and stability of a true arch. In this design, the arch distributes the load along its curve and down the supports, eliminating the need for additional reinforcements. The Pantheon in Rome is a classic example of the successful implementation of large, self-supporting Roman arches. In contrast, a segmented arch is partially self-supporting but not fully. It typically features a curved shape but relies on additional internal support. This support often comes in the form of a hidden wooden timber or steel beam within the arch. The segmented arch allows for a more flexible design, especially when accommodating different architectural styles and structural considerations. The segmented brick arch is extremely common in many parts of Washington DC, particularly in Capitol Hill. Capitol Hill was neighborhood built over a 100 years ago and at the time of its original construction many of the houses were built just for working class people. At the time the segmented arch was a way to give a building a bit more fenestration for a lower cost than stained or honed curved or radius glass. Roman arches, for example required a stained glass or radius glass to fill the top and still use the entire sub-header section as fenestration. That stained glass or radius glass was expensive then, like today. To make it all cheaper, the segmented arch allowed for a rectilinear window without either the extra expense of radius glass or stained glass and without am=n overall shorter respective area of fenestration. Historic window openings often include areas or details of craftsmanship and attention to detail not found in contemporary or modern production style construction. Including the Mc-Mansion tract homes across our MD-DC-VA suburbs. Surrounding an archway, you might find decorative elements such as moldings, voussoirs (wedge-shaped stones or bricks forming the arch), and keystones. In many cases in historic areas, like Capitol Hill, these buildings are often over 100 years old. These elements not only serve structural purposes but also contribute to the aesthetic appeal of the architecture. In the picture below, a double rowlock course of brickwork is used to create the eyebrow window header. This is a more simple, utilitarian type of historic masonry. It has no embellishments or adornments but is very common in what may have been one of the thousands units of worker’s housing over a hundred years ago. Today, in 2024, these once simple and functional houses are valued at near $1,000 / SF, making them some of the most expensive houses in America and the world. A typical window opening consists of a sill at the bottom, supporting the window frame or sash. On either side, there are jambs that support the vertical load. The lintel or header spans the top of the opening, providing horizontal support. In the case of arched windows, this header takes the form of an arch. Understanding the differences between self-supporting Roman arches and partially self-supporting segmented arches provides insight into the versatility of architectural design. While both contribute to the structural stability of window openings, the choice between them often depends on the aesthetic preferences, architectural style, and structural requirements of a particular building. More than anything else, the actual driving force behind the prevalence of segmental arches in Capitol Hill was the ceiling height to fenestration ratio. Hence, simple economics drove the use of segmented arches more than anything else. Soldier Brick CourseSoldier courses in brickwork serve both functional and aesthetic purposes in historic building facades, contributing to the structural integrity and visual appeal of the architecture. These distinctive brick arrangements are characterized by bricks standing on end with their narrow sides facing outward, creating a vertical and regimented pattern. The use of soldier courses has been prevalent throughout history and remains a prominent feature in many historic buildings at accent locations. One of the primary functions of soldier courses can be to provide structural support to the masonry wall of the facade element at a point bearing location. By placing bricks in an upright position, the load-bearing capacity of a spot in a wall may be enhanced. This is particularly significant in areas where additional strength and reinforcement are required in a point bearing position Soldier courses help distribute the load of the masonry above them more evenly. This is achieved by creating a vertical arrangement that disperses the weight downward. The rigid and upright nature of soldier courses assists in preventing the deformation or sagging of the brickwork over time, but if and only if the substrate under the point load of the soldier course is particularly strong and stable. In fact, the use of soldier courses for structural purposes may be useful in some structural conditions; it is quite rare, for structural purposes in historic areas built around the turn of the 19th-20th century, such as Washington DC. Soldier courses add a distinctive architectural detail to the facade, breaking up the monotony of horizontal brick courses. This detailing reflects the craftsmanship of the builders and contributes to the overall character and identity of the structure. When selectively placed, soldier courses can draw attention to specific architectural features. For example, they are commonly used as a band coincident with or near floor levels between levels of windows to provide a break in the monotony of a field bond, creating a visual differentiation in the facade. The vertical orientation contrasts with the horizontal lines of standard brickwork, creating a visual effect. Many historic buildings feature soldier courses as a characteristic element of their architectural style. The use of soldier courses in brickwork became particularly popular during certain historical periods, such as the Victorian era. Preserving and or restoring these elements in historic preservation buildings helps maintain the authenticity and aesthetic continuity of the structure. The common alternatives such as formstone, stucco, and parging are a travesty because they rob the building of its historic unique elements for the rest of time. The use of soldier courses often aligns with specific architectural styles and historical periods. For example, the soldier course may be a key feature in Georgian or Colonial Revival architecture. Its inclusion reflects the design preferences of a particular era and contributes to the historical narrative of the building. In the picture below you can see an example of a soldier course at the top of a wall of a historic carriage house. This wall is a relatively simple on adorned continuous bond of common brick. but this specific soldier course as one unique element of flare and architectural interest to an otherwise monotonous wall. Mansard RoofThe mansard roof is named after the French architect François Mansart who worked through the middle of the 18th century, although it was popularized by his great-nephew, Jules Hardouin-Mansart in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Jules Hardouin-Mansart extensively used mansard roofs in the architectural designs of the Palace of Versailles during the 17th century. The mansard roof is characterized by its steeply sloping sides with a flat or gently sloping top, often punctuated by dormer windows. The tax evasion, though, may have been the actual driving force of the origin of the mansard roof. During the 18th century in France, there was a tax based on the number of stories of a building. By designing structures with mansard roofs, architects could create an additional story hidden away in what appeared to just be an attic roof space. The upper part of the mansard roof, which appeared hidden in the roof, was often used as living space. This architectural strategy allowed property owners to evade taxes by exploiting the particular regimented construct of tax regulations of the time. In Washington, DC, mansard roofs are prevalent, particularly in neighborhoods like Capitol Hill. However, the use of mansard roofs in D.C. is not typically associated with tax evasion but rather with architectural style popularized many decades earlier. Here in the USA, mansard roofs became popular during the Second Empire architectural style, which was prevalent in the mid to late 19th century. This style, characterized by elaborate detailing and the use of mansard roofs, gained popularity in the aftermath of the Civil War. Many neighborhoods in Washington, D.C., have requirements to preserve historic architecture, and mansard roofs contribute to the charm and character of these areas. The use of mansard roofs reflects the influence of architectural styles that were in vogue during the city’s expansion in the late 19th century. Mansard roofs are commonly found on rowhouses in D.C., especially in neighborhoods with Victorian and Second Empire-style architecture. They are also present on some larger institutional buildings, adding a distinctive visual element to the cityscape. While the historical origin of the mansard roof involves tax considerations in France, the use of this architectural feature in Washington, D.C., is more closely tied to stylistic preferences and historic preservation efforts rather than tax evasion strategies. Today, it’s an interesting example of how architectural elements can transcend their original purposes and become integral to the identity of a city’s built environment. The picture above shows an example of a somewhat typical mansard roof on the top of the front facade of a city rowhome. This particular mansard rooftop happens to be clad with a historic terracotta tile. Although this type of tile covering is somewhat common in the historic neighborhoods of Washington DC, it’s not nearly as common as slate roofing on mansard roofs. Historic Water TableWater tables in historic row home facades, such as those in Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown neighborhoods in Washington, D.C., serve both functional and aesthetic purposes. A water table is a projecting ledge or molding built into the lower part of a masonry facade, typically at the base of a building, just above ground level. There are also several functional purposes of water tables.Water Management: The primary purpose of a water table is to manage water runoff from rain and prevent it from saturating the lower portion of the masonry facade. By extending outward, the water table helps direct rainwater away from the building, protecting the foundational masonry from excessive moisture. Preservation of Masonry: Water tables play a crucial role in preserving the integrity of the masonry. By preventing excessive moisture contact with the lower portion of the facade, they minimize the risk of water infiltration, which can lead to long-term deterioration of the brickwork and mortar. Hydration, or the absorption of water by masonry, is a significant factor in the degradation of historic buildings. Water tables help prevent staining on the facade caused by water runoff. By guiding water away from the building, they reduce the likelihood of mineral deposits, efflorescence, or other stains that can mar the appearance of the masonry. Where water drips run down a building facade, they tend to run in concentrated drip trails and these concentrated areas leave stains of both dirt and biocolonization. Biocolonization is a term used to describe plan and fungus growth of masonry surfaces. These biological life forms start small but over time can deteriorate masonry surfaces in an insidious way. Future deterioration continuously but even more rapidly as it goes. When well integrated into a facade, the water table, unlike the ugly functional tubes used in contemporary architecture of gutter and downspouts, looks like a classic architectural adornment. Water tables are often designed to seamlessly integrate with the architectural style of the building. They can be decorative elements, featuring molding or detailing that complements the overall design aesthetic. Unlike modern gutters, which are typically added to the exterior, water tables are built-in, forming an integral component of the masonry structure. This not only enhances their functionality but also contributes to the historic character of the building. Water tables contribute to the visual appeal of historic row homes. They provide a distinct horizontal line that breaks up the verticality of the facade, adding architectural interest and defining the base of the building. Water tables in historic row home facades in Washington, D.C., and other parts of the city play a role in managing water runoff, preserving masonry, and preventing deterioration. The picture above shows a historic water table and adorning cornice, but the next picture below shows a different style using pressed tin which has a artistic shape set into the sheet metal. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. In this coming week’s article, we’ll take a look at decorative cornices, corbels, gothic brick chimney arches for flue rain caps, jack arches and historic wrought iron elements used in the original construction of these historic brick buildings, and more. <p>The post Architectural Details in Masonry Facades – Part III first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/architectural-details-in-masonry-facades-part-iii/ Today’s article is Part II in a multi-part series looking at unique architectural details of historic masonry facades. Some of the details that we will look at are made from materials other than masonry, but they are part of the fabric of the overall masonry facade of historic buildings. We see these elements throughout many historic neighborhoods in Washington. DC. These elements are often deserving of the credit for the historic charm and unique aesthetic that we attribute to historic masonry buildings. Although here at Infinity Design Solutions, we happen to love brick, it isn’t always the brick itself, not the field areas of common bonds or even the Flemish bonds that we find in the field of the facades, that gives the building its flare and noteworthiness. Normally it’s actually the elements at the openings, architectural details, friezes, cornices and corners of the facades that give the majority of the building facade it’s unique character We will look at a long series of these elements one by one. Similar to the Historic Masonry Encyclopedia on our website, this series of blogs is a place where someone can learn a lot about masonry and architecture from a type of perspective like a guide. These elements are only slightly grouped, but not presented in an alphabetical or chronological type of order. Today we start by looking at a pediments and tympaniums. Pediment and TympaniumsPediments and tympanums are classical architectural elements that were most prominent in the construction of historic masonry facades in early American cities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the neoclassical revival style. It is in that time period that these elements became particularly common n the construction of historic row building facades in the Washington DC area. In a previous article from about 2 years ago, we took a look at several very elaborate pediments and tympanums. A pediment is a triangular gable that crowns the entrance or portico of a building. It typically sits atop the horizontal structure (entablature) and is supported by columns. In the classical orders, such as Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, pediments were adorned with sculptures or reliefs depicting scenes from mythology or allegorical representations. The shape and ornamentation of pediments added a sense of grandeur and classical elegance to building facades. The tympanum is the triangular or segmental space enclosed by the pediment. This area provides a canvas for decorative elements, reliefs, or sculptures. The tympanum became a focal point for artistic expression, allowing architects to convey symbolic or narrative messages. The classical influence on tympanum decoration often featured mythological or historical scenes, contributing to the overall aesthetic of the facade. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the neoclassical revival movement in architecture brought back classical elements, including pediments and tympanums. This revival was influenced by the architectural styles of ancient Greece and Rome, aiming to evoke a sense of dignity, order, and democracy. Neoclassical buildings in early American cities adopted these elements in various ways. For example, government Buildings such as state capitols, city halls, and federal buildings incorporated grand entrances with columns, pediments, and tympanums. Examples include the U.S. Capitol here in Washington, D.C. Civic Institutions, such as museums, libraries, and universities embraced neoclassical design, featuring classical elements in their facades to convey a sense of cultural and intellectual significance. Some commercial structures, especially banks and financial institutions, adopted neoclassical details to convey stability and trustworthiness. If you look at some of the oldest banks in Washington DC,you will see that they invested in the structure and facade of the buildings with significant funding. These billings were made to look like solid institutions. The use of pediments and tympanums in historic masonry facades during this period served not only aesthetic purposes but also conveyed a symbolic language. The revival of classical elements was seen as a way to connect the architecture of the new nation with the democratic ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. Carved stone work in low relief serves as architectural embellishments that enhance the aesthetic appeal of facade walls. These elements are often integrated into key architectural features such as friezes, lintels, or decorative panels. The low relief carving allows for intricate details while maintaining a subtle and integrated presence within the overall facade. Stone carvings in low relief can feature a variety of motifs, including figurative representations, mythological scenes, or purely decorative patterns. Figurative motifs may include faces, animals, or symbolic representations that add narrative depth to the building’s exterior. Decorative patterns, on the other hand, contribute to the overall ornamentation and visual interest. The creation of carved stone work demands a high level of craftsmanship and artistry. Skilled artisans meticulously carve the stone, bringing intricate designs to life. The low relief carving technique allows for a balance between detailed craftsmanship and the practical integration of the carved elements into the facade. Carved stone work often carries cultural and historical significance, reflecting the architectural styles and design preferences of specific periods. In early American cities, particularly during the neoclassical revival, architects drew inspiration from classical motifs, incorporating carved stone elements that echoed the grandeur of ancient architecture. The carved elements in low relief can hold symbolic meanings or convey specific iconography. For instance, floral patterns may symbolize growth and prosperity, while classical motifs may evoke a sense of tradition and order. The careful selection of symbols adds layers of meaning to the building’s facade, creating a visual language that resonates with viewers. Over time, exposure to the elements can impact the preservation of carved stone work. Weathering, pollution, and other environmental factors may contribute to the deterioration of these intricate details. Preservation efforts often involve careful cleaning, restoration, and protection to ensure the longevity of the carved elements and maintain the architectural integrity of historic facades. Festoon, carved stone reliefFestoons are common and popular in historic stone-carved reliefs for several reasons, combining both aesthetic and symbolic considerations. The iconography of festoons is prevalent in this architectural context. Festoons, often depicting garlands of flowers, fruits, or foliage, symbolize abundance and prosperity. The imagery of a bountiful harvest or a rich harvest season conveys positive and optimistic connotations. In historic reliefs, especially during periods like the neoclassical revival, this symbolism was appealing as it resonated with themes of growth, wealth, and well-being. Festoons have a strong association with classical art and architecture, particularly in ancient Greece and Rome. The use of festoons as decorative elements was prevalent in classical temples, where they adorned columns, friezes, and altars. During architectural revivals in the 18th and 19th centuries, architects drew inspiration from classical motifs, and festoons became a staple in neoclassical design, bringing a sense of tradition and continuity to architectural ornamentation. Festoons add a touch of decorative elegance to stone-carved reliefs. The intricate detailing of draped garlands and the flowing arrangement of flowers or fruits create visually appealing patterns. This decorative aspect enhances the overall aesthetic richness of the relief, contributing to the ornamental beauty of the architectural element. Festoons often allude to cultural and artistic traditions associated with celebrations, ceremonies, and triumphal events. The use of festoons in reliefs can evoke a sense of festivity and cultural heritage, creating a connection between the architectural ornament and broader societal and artistic contexts. The imagery of festoons has a timeless and universal appeal. The natural motifs of flowers and fruits transcend specific cultural boundaries and periods, making them relatable and appreciated across different contexts. This universality contributes to the enduring popularity of festoons in stone-carved reliefs. The symmetrically arranged festoons often contribute to a sense of harmony and balance in the overall design. The careful arrangement of draped elements creates a visual equilibrium that enhances the overall composition of the relief, making it aesthetically pleasing to the viewer. In summary, festoons are popular in historic stone-carved reliefs due to their rich symbolism, classical heritage, decorative elegance, cultural allusions, timeless appeal, and ability to bring harmony to architectural compositions. These elements collectively make festoons a favored and enduring choice for stone-carved ornamentation in various architectural styles and historical periods. Masonry infillWe often see infill in masonry facades at the sides and rear exterior walls of historic buildings. You can learn more about masonry wall infill, at our historic masonry restoration encyclopedia here. Often when interior wall layouts change in historic masonry buildings, the new interior layout will close a conflict with the existing layout of a window opening. Sometimes walls will intersect or must be built very close to the location of an exterior window. When these changes happen on the interior of the building, sometimes it’s easiest and cheapest to fill the window in with masonry instead of relocating the window. Oculus or Ox Eye WindowThe Oculus, or Ox Eye Window, is a distinctive architectural element characterized by a circular opening, often found in historic masonry facades. While it is true that constructing an Oculus could be labor-intensive and more complex, the architectural appeal and the unique design features contributed to its use in various historical periods. Here are some reasons behind the complexity and expense associated with the Creating a circular opening in masonry involves intricate stonework to achieve the precise curvature required for the Oculus. Masons had to carefully carve and shape the stones to form a symmetrical and aesthetically pleasing circular design. This level of precision and attention to detail added complexity to the construction process. The circular opening of an Oculus creates structural challenges. Maintaining the stability and integrity of the surrounding masonry while creating a large, circular void requires careful temporary shoring. Reinforcements or additional structural elements may be necessary to ensure the stability of the facade during construction, adding to the complexity of construction. After construction; however, it’s a different scenario. After the oculus orr oxyn, they’re opening on spilt, see her head or simultaneously. Crafting an Oculus demanded skilled craftsmanship. Masons with expertise in stone carving and shaping were required to execute the intricate design. The labor involved in achieving the desired level of detail and precision contributed to the overall cost and complexity of the construction. The Oculus often served as a focal point in the facade, and its design incorporated various architectural detailing such as keystones, tracery, or decorative elements. These additional features increased the complexity of the construction process and added to the labor-intensive nature of creating an aesthetically pleasing Oculus. Customization and Individuality:The complexity and expense associated with constructing an Oculus were also tied to the desire for individualized and unique architectural features. The Oculus allowed for customization, and the design could be tailored to the specific preferences and style of the building’s owner or architect. This individuality often came at a higher cost. Artistic Expression:Despite the challenges, the Oculus was valued for its artistic expression and contribution to the overall visual appeal of the facade. The circular shape, often reminiscent of an eye or a celestial symbol, added a layer of symbolism and aesthetic significance to the architecture. While the construction of an Oculus might have been more labor-intensive and costly, its inclusion in historic masonry facades reflects a commitment to architectural beauty, individuality, and the desire to create visually stunning structures. The enduring presence of Oculus windows in historic buildings attests to their lasting impact on architectural design and aesthetics. Roman BrickRoman brick, characterized by its flatter and longer dimensions, is a distinctive type of brick with a history rooted in ancient Roman architecture. While it’s not exclusive to Rome and can be manufactured globally, it adheres to a specific dimensional ratio inspired by ancient Roman practices. In historic American cities like Washington, DC, Roman brick occasionally found its use alongside more common brick types. Roman brick is known for its unique dimensions, which are flatter and longer compared to the more common historic brick used in American cities. The traditional dimensions follow a ratio of roughly 1:2:4, where the height is half the width, and the length is twice the width. This ratio creates a distinctive appearance that sets Roman brick apart. Global Production:Despite its association with ancient Rome, Roman brick can be produced almost anywhere in the world. The term “Roman” refers more to the dimensional ratio rather than the geographical origin. This flexibility in production allows for the incorporation of Roman brick characteristics in diverse architectural styles globally. The color of Roman brick tends to be more orange and less red than the common bricks used in buildings, especially in regions like Washington, DC. This color variation is influenced by the type of clay used in the brick’s production. The presence of iron oxide in the clay imparts an orange hue to the bricks. The firing process and specific clay composition contribute to the color variation between Roman bricks and the more standard red bricks. The use of Roman brick in historic American buildings reflects an appreciation for classical architectural elements and a desire to emulate ancient design principles. While less common than standard bricks, the incorporation of Roman brick adds a touch of historical authenticity and architectural diversity to certain structures. Architects may choose Roman brick for specific projects to achieve a distinct aesthetic or to pay homage to historical design traditions. The unique dimensions and color of Roman brick allow for creative and visually interesting architectural compositions when used alongside or in contrast to more common brick types. In summary, Roman brick’s characteristics, including its distinctive dimensions and orange coloration, make it a notable choice in architectural design. While its usage might be less prevalent than standard bricks, its occasional inclusion in historic American buildings demonstrates a deliberate design choice to evoke classical architectural elements and add visual diversity to the built environment. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Architectural Details in Masonry Facades – Part II first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/architectural-details-in-masonry-facades-part-ii/ Today, we’re starting a really exciting series. Looking at unique architectural details of historic masonry facades. Some of the details that we will look at are made from materials other than masonry, but they are part of the fabric of the overall masonry facade of historic buildings. We see these elements throughout many historic neighborhoods in Washington. DC. These elements are often deserving of the credit for the historic charm and unique aesthetic that we attribute to historic masonry buildings. Although here at Infinity Design Solutions, we happen to love brick, it isn’t always the brick itself, not the field areas of common bonds or even the Flemish bonds that we find in the field of the facades, that gives the building its flare. Normally it’s actually the elements at the openings, architectural details, friezes, cornices and corners of the facades that give the majority of the building character. We will look at a long series of these elements one by one. Similar to the Historic Masonry Encyclopedia on our website, this series of blogs is a place where someone can learn a lot about masonry and architecture from a type of perspective like a guide. These elements are only slightly grouped, but not presented in an alphabetical or chronological type of order. Architectural FriezeThe picture below shows an architectural frieze in a historic brick masonry historic building. This particular masonry architectural frieze is hand carved and uses a design of a Vitruvian wave. The Vitruvian wave Is used in many different historic masonry facade architectural details. This classical element of design is inspired by the sculptures crafted by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius. It embodies a combination of aesthetic decor, historic significance, and geometric repetition. The design is a sign of superior craftsmanship. The wave pattern, characterized by a geometric repetition of curves, creates a sense of demarcation and balance. This not only adds visual interest to the facade but also conveys a decorative elegance that connects with the historical context of the classical building style. Moreover, the Vitruvian wave serves a practical purpose in the context of masonry friezes. As a hand-carved element, it allows for intricate detailing and craftsmanship, showcasing the skill and artistry of the craftsmen involved in the construction of the building. The undulating curves of the wave design create a pronounced shadow, highlighting the depth of the surface details and provide a tactile dimension to the facade, inviting a sensory engagement with the building’s exterior. Architectural friezes, in general, have a significant role in the overall design and functionality of a building facade. Positioned horizontally along the exterior, often between the architrave and cornice, but lower in this cases, a frieze serves as a transitional element that connects various architectural components. In the case of historic masonry facades, friezes often play a role in unifying the overall aesthetic, providing a cohesive visual narrative that enhances the building’s character. Beyond their aesthetic function, architectural friezes also serve practical purposes. They act as a protective ledge when protruding or proud of the remainder of the field of the planar facade, shielding this greater portion of the building from the elements. In the case of masonry facades, where exposure to weathering is a concern, a well-crafted frieze can help shed rainwater a small but effective increment away from the building, preventing increased residual exposure and resulting accelerated deterioration to the underlying structure. Friezes can also be functionally used to conceal structural elements or transitions between different materials, contributing to a continuous an integral exterior appearance. The architectural frieze, in turn, serves both aesthetic and practical functions, contributing to the overall visual narrative of the building while offering a protruding edge or slight lip to deflect precipitation and rainfall protection to the field of the historic brick facade. The dual nature of design and purpose in these architectural elements is common but often subtle and not readily apparent in historic brick building facades. As a side commentary, it should be noted that in the picture shown here, of the Vitruvian wave frieze, this particular building is beautiful and valuable. It should be treated like a historic building reflecting details of classical architecture and it should be preserved and cared for with professional stewardship. The brick work at this building, although large and expensive, must be maintained and you can clearly see even in this one single photograph that the mortar is deteriorated and has voids between the bricks. Historic brick pointing and repointing is required and should be conducted in a professional manner to remove the deteriorated mortar at the outside face of the brick and replace it with proper lime mortar to reflect and coordinate with the required compressive maximum strength and porosity of the existing remaining brick mortar. Structural Retaining PlateThe use of structural retaining plates, commonly referred to as earthquake washers or Barnstars, in Washington DC’s brick buildings help with the specific challenges posed by structural deflection and deformation forces on traditional masonry structures. These plates and associated internally hidden tie rods, bolts and supports play a role in supporting the structural rigidity of historic buildings. The science and engineering behind structural retaining plates focus on their capacity to dissipate and redistribute deteriorative forces, for the unique vulnerabilities related to deflection and characteristics of natural decay on historic brick buildings, such as: deterioration, decline, atrophy, degradation and degeneration. Structural retaining plates, often designed in a distinctive star shape, in Washington DC, are strategically placed at critical areas within a building’s structure. For example, the midspan field areas of brick walls are often the most susceptible to lateral deflection. Made from materials like steel, in modern times and cat iron, these washers provide a point of retention to allow controlled but limited movement during seismic events. The star-like design is mostly decorative, but the reach of the expanse extends to the arms which create articulation points that enable the controlled displacement of forces, possibly slightly reducing the risk of concentrated stress points in the brick masonry. Here in these example. We show rectalinear cut steel plates which have been used just like the more decorative alternatives of diamonds, round disks and stars. These square steel plates might miss some of the decorative characters of the stars and diamond shape plates, but they’re almost as effective in retaining the shape of the facade and resisting deflection. The engineering principles behind structural retaining plates are centered around two goals: resisting outward deflection, like spreading, and resisting seismic forces. In Washington DC, where preserving the historic integrity of the city is financially valuable (and often a requirement), structural retaining plates offer a nuanced yet somewhat effective solution. By somewhat discreetly integrating these plates and associated interior rod connections into key locations, restoration specialists, like Infinity Design Solutions, can extend the physical reach of the interior structural frame tonadd strength and resilience to brick building facades without significantly compromising their architectural aesthetics. The picture below shows one of the most classic Washington DC resistance plate shapes: the iconic 5-pointed cast iron star. These particular shapes have become more popular in recent years because of the embrace of the gentrifying neighborhoods of Washington DC. The associated commercialization and the pairing of commercialization with localization connects to an embrace of localized elements. This cultural connection reflects both the national relevance of DC as the nation’s capitol and the stars in both the national American flag and the DC flag. The application of structural retaining plates in Washington DC’s brick buildings is an example of integration of engineering with the finer things like the architectural elegance or character expected of historic brick buildings. They safeguard historic facades, and structures while complimenting their architectural aesthetic in an effort to balance preservation and resilience in our historic built environment. Carved Stone ReliefA relief sculpture is a three-dimensional carving or casting that projects from a flat background. Most we see in architectural applications in Washington DC are recessed. Like freestanding sculptures, relief sculptures remain attached to a surface, whether it’s a wall, panel, or another architectural element. These sculptures are characterized by the illusion of depth, giving the impression that the depicted figures or scenes are emerging from the background. Like the Vitruvian Wave we discussed above, there are other stone relief carvings often implemented or placed directly into areas of a masonry facade for ornamentation and/or architectural and esthetic character. Stone, or terracotta, elements can be and are often set or cast directly into brick. Like the stone frieze shown above, the remainder of the building facade is mostly made from historic brick. Here in this example below, conversely, we show a stone relief carved from a material similar to the remainder of the majority of the stone facade. This particular stone happens to be a sandstone, which like limestone, is much softer than granite and therein easier to carve. In architectural terms, the example below would be considered a low relief. There are several types of relief sculptures commonly found in architecture and masonry facades, described by their relative depth. In low-relief sculptures, the figures or subjects project only slightly from the background. The depth of the carving is minimal, creating a subtle play of light and shadow. Low-relief sculptures are often found on architectural friezes, like the ones shown here, where the carved elements are integrated into the overall design without protruding too prominently. High-relief sculptures feature more pronounced projections from the background, creating a greater sense of depth and dimensionality. The figures in high-relief sculptures appear to be more detached from the surface, casting more distinct shadows. These types of reliefs are commonly used for decorative elements on buildings, adding a sense of dynamism and visual interest. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. In this coming week’s article, we’ll take another look at a similar relief but explore how pediments and tympanums were used to decorate historic gables and facades. <p>The post Architectural Details in Masonry Facades – Part I first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/architectural-details-in-masonry-facades-part-i/ We recently looked at the brick facade of an interesting building. Two different types of bricks have been used in the facade construction. At the main exterior a darker brick has been used. At the rear of the building a lighter brick has been used in the construction. The lighter brick looks more rustic because it has larger pieces of rock and impurities that are apparent in the clay face of the brick. The mortar work also appears less consistent, for a few different reasons. We’ll look closer at these details and explain some of the reasons and causes behind the differences. As explained, this building is built with two distinct different types of brick. The street facing side of the building is built with a type of brick known as pressed brick. Common brick, by comparison ,which was used at the rear of the building, is typically less expensive than the pressed brick, and it may contain various irregularities, including larger aggregate particles in the clay. The pressed brick, on the other hand, is designed to have a more finished and uniform appearance, often with a smooth texture. It’s usually used in areas that are more visible, such as the main exterior or facade of a building, where aesthetics are a primary concern. In this case, the exposed facade only faces the Alley, but a portion of that facade can be seen from the main street, at an angle. In the picture below, you can see the darker, more uniform brick, at the left, used in the main exterior That street facing brick is a pressed brick, while the lighter, less expensive brick used at the rear of the building is common brick with larger stone particles visible on the clay face. Often, on our blog, we focus on discussing the principles of proper historic brick restoration and repointing or tuck pointing. We often discuss the differences between the common brick and pressed brick. Pressed brick is a particular type of historic brick which was made from filtered or sifted clay before being consolidated into the form of shape of a brick and then fired at relatively higher temperatures than the common brick. The pressed brick was not only fired higher temperatures than common brick, but it was also fired at more consistent temperatures whereas common bricks are fired in larger quantities and were often subjected to greater disparities in overall temperature during firing leading to several different types of inconsistencies. One of the main types of inconsistencies is that with brick firing at lower temperatures, within the general range of acceptable temperatures, those bricks will fire to a lower degree of vitreousness. The next two pictures below show the two different types of bricks up close. The first picture shows the common brick, used as a cheaper infill. The next picture shows the pressed brick. This particular brick has a high degree of consistency from one brick unit to the next, but it’s different than the pressed bricks we so often see in the front facades of the more ornate Capitol Hill and Washington DC historic brick rowhomes. Although the brick below is a very old brick it is not necessarily from an architecturally historic time, it’s not the same as the historic pressed bricks and is actually much newer, by several decades. This building is attached to a historic building but this building is actually an accessory building, similar to a garage. We’re not sure when this brick was built but the original building was probably built very close to or in the year of 1900. Although the bricks used in the construction of this building or this small accessory building are not historic and not the historic pressed brick that we are most familiar with, this is still a type of pressed brick. It is what we would call a dry pressed brick, today. This brick, unlike other bricks made with a typical wet clay plug, is made from clay particles that are slightly larger in size with less hydration. The difference in the texture of the brick shows this difference. At a glance it almost resembles a wire cut plug mold brick, but there are also other differences in that style of brick. Generally, in a wire cut brick, you will see short lines, in the brick face, where very small particulates were dragged by the wire. This brick does not bear that mark. By comparison though, when you look at the next brick in the next photo below, this brick is a common brick with significant variation in dimensions and its rectilinear form. For masons, when building with this type of brick it’s relatively difficult to hide the inconsistencies from one brick to the next. A relatively large mortar joint helps significantly, yet you can still see the difference when looking closely. Thewire cut bricks, discussed above, are one of the most common types of modern or contemporary bricks. These types of bricks are cut from a plug extrusion. The plug is a mass of hydrated and mixed clay. The clay is then pressed, in modern production, with a hydraulic machine that extrudes it through a die as the plug is then extruded, the machinery slices each brick from the mass of plug with a wire that cuts through it more smoothly than a wet saw could even cut. The plug is wet and soft and the wire passes through with very little resistance. Yet, a texture, as explained, is left on the face of the brick because very small particles in the plug mold will drag or be displaced in the surrounding clay, just a tiny bit as the wire passes through the clay. This movement, caused by the wire, leaves this distinct texture in the face of the brick. In the picture below, we can see common brick that was made in individual molds without the wire cut texture on the face of the brick. The pressed brick stands out in comparison to the common brick. This particular brick also has a very uniform aesthetic, even with a larger brick joint than is commonly found in the butter joint profile used with historic pressed bricks. At the top of this wall there is a staggered corbeling that has a dentil type aesthetic. Dentil reliefs and shavings are common in historic architecture., even in wood elements. By comparison, dentil molding, commonly seen in historic architecture in both wood and pladter, features small, rectangular blocks resembling teeth. This dentil design is a repeating motif often used in cornices and moldings along the tops of exterior facades, like the one shown here. This architectural detail draws inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman architecture. Each dentil is evenly spaced, creating a visual pattern that adds a layer of detail to the structure. In cornices, dentil set masonry contributes to the building facades’s overall appeal, providing an additional detail. This detail might be somewhat subtle in brick masonry, but the building stands apart from other buildings with just a plain vertical face. At certain degrees of sunlight, for example, the shadows created by the alternating brick relief becomes accented and the building has a more dramatic and ornate feel overall. In the photo above, you may also notice there’s a difference with the mortar used at the face brick and the common brick. The mortar at the common brick is set flush to the face of the brick yet the mortar at the pressed brick is recessed, only about 3/8 of an inch but that 3/8 of an inch recess makes quite a different aesthetic appearance. Essentially, the bricks stand proud of the mortar and this difference creates a drastic shadow that highlights the three dimensional surface. The corner of the brick wall has been damaged. The brick, in the up close view, is the pressed face brick. Where the corner is broken off, you can see that the material inside of the face of the brick looks slightly different, yet the actual texture is similar. The outer face of the brick has been stained with decades of exposure to dirt in the air, and that outer face of the brick is a little bit darker, overall. Buildings on the alleys are often damaged by large trucks making deliveries and or trash trucks that constantly come through the alleys on routine trash pickups. These trucks are large and often just barely make the turns of the tight alleyways without damaging the brick walls. Often bollards, heavy and strong steel tubes used to prevent vehicles from the walls, are installed to protect the building corners, but they’re usually just marginally effective and in this case no bollard is installed at this corner. The next picture shows an even closer view of the cracked and broken surface of the brick. Although you can see a difference in the color at the face of the brick, there is relatively high consistency of the materials beyond the face of the brick. Both the mortar joint and the brick itself were damaged by the impact and abrasion. There are ways to repair damaged bricks, using special types of mortar for patching and/or epoxies, but it’s difficult and expensive, on a unit basis. In most cases it’s relatively easy and often even more cost-effective to just replace the damaged bricks with other bricks. However, in this particular case it’s very difficult to procure a brick similar to the ones used at the exterior facings of this particular building’s walls. Here in the next picture below, you can see there are large pieces of aggregate or stone inside of the brick. This brick was fired with those portions of stone inside of the plug which is the main constituent material of the brick. Mostly, bricks are made from a mixture of clay and other hydrated materials that come from the earth. The mortar used at this somewhat concealed area of the building is very similar to the mortar used at the remainder of the building, it is a lime mortar, but unlike typical historic lime mortar. However, the mortar used in this construction has been sifted and mixed a bit more thoroughly. Although this building has not yet been repointed, overall the mortar is in somewhat decent condition. There are exceptions at specific locations, but it’s not yet time for repointing or wholesale restoration. Each historic building is unique, to a degree, and the analysis of which steps to take in restoration should be determined in a case by case basis. In some cases, buildings need to be repointed to preserve and safeguard the building from water damage that emanates from water entering through the exterior facade. In some cases the rate of deterioration is increasing and can lead to worse damage Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Common Brick vs Pressed Brick Side-by-Side first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/common-brick-vs-pressed-brick-side-by-side/ Last week, we had the opportunity to take a look at the shell of an old block building that has been in disrepair for many years. Today we will look at a second part of that case study, as we look at additional visual aspects of the building which have implications in the structural and masonry construction. We pick up where we left off last week and we talk about corrugated metal roofs.
Metal roof deckingCorrugated metal roof decking is one of the most ubiquitous roofing materials in the world. It is strong, lightweight, and relatively durable in terms of corrosion resistance and or deterioration resistance from the elements. There are a relatively small handful of roofs in the Washington DC and Capitol Hill area which have standing seam or similar flat seam metal roofs, but they’re relatively rare and declining in proportion overall. Flat and standing seam roofs though are slightly different than corrugated metal roofs. Corrugated metal roofs have a degree of rigidity in the panel of each piece, due to the ridge-like angle of the corrugation. That corrugation provides rigidity because the opposing angles of the bent metal stiffen the sheet of metal from which each panel is made. Corrugated metal roofs are much less common in the Washington DC area. Once in a while, on very small roofs we will find them used where there the span of the roof is small enough that there are not many end seams. Seams in panels, like this, are susceptible to ice damming in relatively low slopes. Ice damming is a condition where water will build up and rise vertically in events of precipitation with temperatures hovering around 32° F for an extended period of time. In those particular conditions water will build up and rise upwards under a sheet of near frozen or semi-frozen materials on top. Moreover, standing seam roofs, with their sleek, uninterrupted surfaces, offer an aesthetic appeal that sets them apart from the more common corrugated counterparts. The decline in their proportion within the Washington DC and Capitol Hill area may be attributed to cost considerations, or advancements in roofing technologies favoring single-ply thermoset or polymer materials. Despite the decline in metal roof prevalence, in the DC area, metal roofs can still work in specific applications such as low front porches where the roof is in view from the ground. Some building designers might opt for metal roofs to achieve a contemporary look. The corrugated metal roof panels are secured on a purlin system, in this case the purlins are the smaller elements running the length of the building in resting upon the larger roof trusses which act similar to girders in Capitol Hill and Washington DC roof systems. Often, in our region, in a stick frame scenario, the girders are referred to as king joists because they are essentially built very similar to regular wood joist or rafters, just doubled or tripled for additional strength. Due to the untempered nature of the space below, there is no insulation underneath of the roof structure nor on top. By comparison, most buildings in the Washington DC and Capitol Hill region require a significant amount of insulation at the underside of the roof or at the top of the interior ceiling. Block Infill around the Truss EndsLast week, we looked at pictures of the structure of this building from several different angles. You may have noticed that there is a band of block around the top of the exterior walls which is different in color. That block was installed separately and after the majority of the block walls in the structure of the building. We speculate that the base building walls were built and as the trusses were manufactured to the specifications of the building, some time had passed between the installation of the walls and the installation of the roof trusses. During that time the supply chain availability may have changed and the original builder may have had to switch to this different block for the very top of the structural walls. Those structural walls though, all possibly equivalent in structural capacity throughout, are different at the very top. The block at the top two courses is set in place only to fill the gap and provide a type of roll blocking at each trust location. Essentially, the trusses are only bearing on top of the original block work and the infill block at the top then has no structural bearing of the roof placed upon it. Gable EndAlthough the slope of this roof is relatively low, the building is still built with Gable ends at the front and back. Gable roofs are one of the simplest layouts, a step up in complexity from a flat roof, they just have a center ridge, in most cases. The slope of this roof is around 2.5 to 12. That’s one of the lowest slopes to be considered a slope roof and not a flat roof. Lower than about that angle, a roof may be considered a flat roof. In most cases, flat roofs are not really flat, even though they’re called flat or often more accurately called low slope roofs, they must have some degree of angle or grade or slope to allow water to shed off of the roof itself passively, through gravity alone. At the top on the right hand side of the gable, to adjust for either a miscalculation or a change to accommodate the roof system, they extended the original beam. Generally, in most building layouts, the gable end and the associated gable wall actually has a lower structural load and therefore requires a lower structural capacity than the other walls of the building. In most simple layouts, the gable end is less wide than the walls which carry the eave of the roof system. Most of the weight and or bearing of roof trusses, or roof rafters rest upon the walls under the eave of the roof. Most stick frame buildings with gable roofs in the United States carry the roof rafters or roof trusses on the eaves, more than at the gable ends. Gable ends generally have a rake board that runs underneath of the roof to terminate the wall at the Gable end of the building, and that wall carries much less of the roof load then the perpendicular opposite walls of the building. Unstruck Mortar JointsStriking a mortar joint involves using a joiner tool to shape and refine the mortar joint, transforming it from a raw extrusion to a precisely contoured form against the masonry. This meticulous process plays a crucial role in enhancing the aesthetics and structural integrity of brickwork. In Washington DC, the practice varies across historic and modern constructions, with distinct mortar joint types prevalent in different architectural contexts. Flush struck joints, commonly observed in historic common brick structures of Washington DC, feature mortar in plain with or close to the brick face. This process imparts a clean and uniform appearance, reflecting the historic charm of the buildings. Conversely, modern brickwork in the region often is built with concave joint striking. Using a concave jointer tool, this method creates a slight radius indentation in the mortar, adding a contemporary touch while also serving functional purposes. Beyond flush and concave joints, other common types include weather struck joints. These joints involve shaping the mortar at a slight angle, preventing water from pooling at the edge of the brick and enhancing durability against weathering. This detail in joint striking serves as a protective measure, addressing concerns about moisture infiltration and potential damage. The rationale behind joint striking extends beyond aesthetics; it encompasses practical aspects like compaction. By striking the joints, the mortar is compacted, ensuring a denser, more durable outer structure. This compaction contributes to the overall longevity of the masonry, strengthening it against external elements. In the case of this particular building, the joints have not been struck, they are almost raw and similar to a flush strike but never smoothed or compacted at the surface of the face of the block or masonry. In this particular case, unlike historic buildings in Capitol Hill and the historic neighborhoods of Washington dc, the masonry joints have not been struck because the final finish of the wall was intended to not leave the block work exposed. They were planning to install a stucco or parce coat type finish on the walls. Concrete Subfloor Intentionally Built Extra LowMany people might walk right past these steps and not notice that the treads at the stairway have all been built a little bit lower than the top stair riser. This isn’t just an omission or mistake, it was done intentionally. In the plan for construction, the builder intended to apply a slab on top of the ground and on top of each of the treads. The slab at the treads would have likely been decorative and each riser would have been increased about 2 in. There are some commonly adopted building codes in the United States, but almost each municipality throughout the country has a right to adopt their own building code. In most cases though the building code requires a minimum and a maximum riser and only about 3/8 of inch total deviation throughout the highest and lowest stair riser within the entirety of the staircase. Electrical EmbedsAfter the installation of the block work, if the electrical wiring or tubing or conduit for the electrical wiring is to be mounted on the face of the masonry then the finish such as stucco, furring strips and drywall, or some other type of wallboard then has to be framed out far enough away from the wall so that it can accommodate the space of the electrical conduit. Otherwise, electrical wiring and conduit must be installed on the face of the finished wall which generally looks very unprofessional and /or similar to a utility grade finish. In this particular type of building assembly, it saves cost and looks much better to run the electrical wiring inside of the space of the block work. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Case Study of a Large Block Masonry Building Shell – Part II of II first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/case-study-of-a-large-block-masonry-building-shell-part-ii-of-ii/ Today, we had the opportunity to take a look at the shell of an old block building that has been in disrepair for many years. The building has several interesting masonry and structural elements. Today we’ll talk about some of those details and show some different visual aspects of the building which have implications in the structural and masonry construction.
Span and required trussworkThe building that we are looking at here in today’s article is a relatively large span. typical building spans of up to 18 ft can normally be accomplished or built with a supporting framework of lumber at regular interval spacing such as 16-in spacing. Short span buildings as low as 12 feet can be supported with roof or inter-floor type decks of relatively low thickness, but larger span buildings require larger thickness lumber to support the load. The relationship between the span and the thickness of the lumber is also impacted by the spacing of the joist or trusses between each joist or truss. In other words, if a building span is longer, in some cases the same size lumber, or boards, or trusses can accomplish the support structure for that same span if the spacing between those elements is closer. In most cases though, for practical purposes the smallest span built between framing members is about 12 in. Below that distance of about 12 in, the span is generally so tight that it makes it impossible to work within the space during construction. In many cases, with building framing, the span or space between structural elements such as joist, rafters, or wall studs, is intentional and beneficial because the void can be used to install needed elements. Some of the most common types of needed elements may include wiring, ductwork, cabling, piping, and insulation. The span in this particular building though is so large that the framework of trusses is built with steel for additional strength and a purlin system is set up spanning or running over each truss to support the lightweight corrugated metal deck roof above. Although the block and concrete walls of this building are particularly strong, even in comparison to historic or traditional historic brickwork, the lightweight deck of the roof significantly helps to decrease the load of the roof. at the center of each truss. Concrete opening headersTypical historic buildings in Capitol Hill, for example, can have door and window openings built with a variety of different materials, but overwhelmingly the most common type of opening header is a segment arch brick header. The historic brick headers in Capitol hill, particularly the segmented headers are often not self-supporting. Beyond a certain width of about 24 in, they require interior support, generally in the form of a wood beam that runs parallel to the segmented arch. By comparison Roman headers which are best described as a semicircle type of arch are generally self-supporting, indefinitely, with routine required upkeep such as repointing or masonry tuckpointing and historic mortar restoration. Here though these openings are built with concrete. There’s a few reasons why concrete works better in this type of arrangement. Concrete, with typical steel rebar or deformed reinforcement bars embedded into the concrete can support very wide spans. in a particularly large building, it’s much better to have large openings to allow fenestration and light from the outside to enter the inside of the building. Concrete elements, like historic brick elements, also require maintenance and restoration and upkeep, but they do not require the typical type of pointing a repointing needed for historic brick. When you look closely at the rough shape of the concrete header, you can see that the concrete header was cast in place and in this particular case an additional amount of concrete had to be added to the form in a partial separate batch. The fasteners temporarily used to support and hold the framework of the form together are left exposed on the face of the concrete header. This concrete header, though rough in finish quality, will be covered with a stucco or cementitious parge coat or some type of finish material to hide the imperfections in the concrete. The concrete was never intended to be an exposed finish in the building. Here though in this particular case we are getting the opportunity to look at this building in the middle of its original construction, frozen in time, a bit like a time capsule. Although these imperfections may look imperfect from an aesthetic perspective, they pose very little to no structural concern. Corbelled bearing header at postsCorbelled wall headers and corbelled brick footings are common in historic buildings, even corbelled precast concrete posts are relatively common in precast construction, but less common in cast-in place construction as shown here in the example. Below, we explain a few terms that are part of this understanding. Corbelled wall headers are common architectural elements found in Washington DC neighborhoods such as Capitol hill, Dupont circle, and Georgetown where the historic brick buildings were built over 100 years ago in most cases these elements are for architectural and decorative purposes only and provide little if any structural purpose. Corbelled brick footings, unlike wall headers or common in the historic buildings of Washington DC, particularly in row homes built around the early 1900s or late 1800s. at the time, when brick was beginning to be used for foundations, large footings would be buried underground and directly from the large footing which could be up to four to six bricks wide, a tapered increasingly thinner stem wall of the foundation would be built above that footing up until it reached an area just above grade. In most cases the historic foundation walls of Washington DC will be built triple wythe, meaning in most cases, at that point farther above grade up until a second or third floor level, the walls will be built in a double wythe assembly. Precast concrete can be found in small or large scale construction. In some cases small elements such as underground drain tubes or decorative elements can be built with precast concrete. These elements are assembled, cast into forms, stripped, and cured in a factory or plant off site. By comparison, cast in place concrete is brought or mixed directly on a job site or construction site in a wet form where it is hydrated and then poured into a field built form. In this case, because of the fasteners and lippage apparent in the exposed faces of the concrete, we are certain that this concrete was cast in place and not precast. Corbelled concrete headers in most cases, would be built in a precast plant and not built on site because the complexity of building the corbelled structural elements may be more cost-effective in a plant than on site, depending on several factors such as proximity and availability of options. In the picture below you can see a view, looking up the shaft of the cast in place concrete column with a corbelled header. At each trust tail, a corbell is located below the truss to support the weight of the truss which supports the purlins which support the roof deck. The corbelled header, in each of these cases is both a location which is wider than the remainder of the column for the purpose of mounting the truss tail, and this widened corbelled header also has the capacity for additional strength for support of the roof. From our visual observations of the building, alone, it’s not clear why the block work at the top of the wall, particularly the topmost two courses are different than the blockwork below. It’s possible that the building construction paused for a time between the construction of the walls and the installation of the roof system and only after the installation of the roof system, the contractor was able to then install the remaining block at the top of the wall. At that point in time, a separate point in the timeline of the project, the contractor may have chosen to change the vendor of the block or the supply chain and Associate availability may have changed such that the original block was not available any longer. this particular difference may not matter in any way to the finished product of the building, as the block wall will likely be covered completely. Concrete Post and BeamsAside from the large load path span and tie backs, the scale of the buildings can change significantly without necessarily changing much about the methodologies of construction. Except, in this case there is also one other big difference between the historic rowhome brick construction versus contemporary and / or newer large scale warehouse sized buildingsn such as the concrete posts and beam system between the blockwork. The concrete post and beam system which blends in, visually, with the adjacent block work, is the core structural framework to support the building. The block work also has a significant structural bearing capacity, but the post and beam system ties the frame of the building together in all areas. The vertical concrete post extends the structural load path from the footing, all the way up to the underside of the roof. the horizontal beams that run between each concrete post allow the block to be supported within certain vertical lengths so that excessive weight bears on no individual spot of block work. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Case Study of a Large Block Masonry Building Shell – Part I of II first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/case-study-of-a-large-block-masonry-building-shell-part-i-of-ii/ Our website and blog focus a lot on repointing and tuckpointing of historic masonry, in fact we have posted some of the most extensive information on historic masonry restoration of the entire internet. As a company, Infinity Design Solutions focuses on historic masonry restoration and facade restoration but we actually will do a varied array of different types of work. Today, instead of typical historic masonry restoration and repointing of historic brick, we are going to look at a type of masonry that is much newer: Interlocking CMU retaining walls. These types of walls are newer looking and they even look a bit cheap and boring, compared to traditional historic masonry. Unlike historic bricks, these interlocking masonry retaining wall units are actually made of cement, like cinder blocks. By comparison, historic bricks and historic masonry are made of kiln fired clay, often directly from the earth. The correct name for retaining wall CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) blocks that fit together in an integral way without mortar is often referred to as “interlocking concrete blocks” or “interlocking retaining wall blocks.” These blocks are designed with features that allow them to fit together seamlessly without the need for mortar, creating a stable and durable retaining wall. The interlocking design typically involves protrusions and recesses on the blocks that interconnect, providing structural stability and resisting lateral forces. Interlocking retaining wall blocks are commonly used in landscaping, garden walls, and other applications where a cheap and easy retaining structure is needed. The outline of today’s article follows:
Lateral Deflection and Differential SettlementUnlike traditional brick construction, the interlocking block retaining walls are generally set without mortar, they’re actually often made to be dry-set, and will often include intentional cavities or voids within the blocks that allow for installation of vertical rods and/or filling with mortar or cement / concrete, but in many cases these blocks are completely dry-set walls that interlock based on the shape of the block itself. Although block walls of this type are formed with integral lips and ridges to interlock and resist the lateral load of shifting soils retained behind the wall, some shifting soils and associated forces are too great for the wall to resist. Stair-step cracking is often associated with differential settlements. Differential settlement is caused by below-ground instability. Often people erroneously believe that stair-step cracking, when associated with differential settlement, is because a portion of the subgrade or sub soils were improperly compacted. That may be true. The bigger point in understanding the principles at work is to understand that differential settlement is more often related to inconsistent compaction of subgrade ground or subsoils: more often inconsistent vs. improper. When a building foundation is built on soils that are compacted relatively consistently throughout, stair-step cracking or differential settlement for that matter are relatively uncommon. The problem more often lies in subgrade compaction that is inconsistent or different from one area of a footing foundation to another. Historic masonry buildings, for example, like the ones in the historic neighborhoods of Washington DC such as Capitol Hill, Dupont circle, and Georgetown are often built with heavy stone or brick masonry footing. Often in historic buildings, the footing is relatively indesternable from the foundation. Often in historic brick buildings in Washington DC the footing itself is just a corbeled portion of the lowest part of the foundation, effectively working as a footing. In most cases though, particularly modern or contemporary construction a footing will be built with steel reinforced concrete and then the foundation will be built on top of the footing and continue to above grade. In cases of a concrete footing, particularly when built with steel reinforcement, the footing has significantly higher tensile strength and therefore can resist the weakening forces of differential settlement. Capstone and CopingsCapstones and copings are the masonry elements at the top of masonry walls. In many cases capstones and copings will be a different shape and use, different functional purpose than the rest of the masonry elements of the wall. The main elements of the field of masonry walls are made to interlock to one another, to a degree. Bricks, for example, by comparison to capstone are different because they have a simple rectilinear shape, a typical rectangle. However, particularly in double wythe or triple wythe walls where bricks are laid in a rowlock position, the integral cohesion of the bricks can be very strong even in large or expansive walls. Copings and capstones can be much longer / wider than typical brick units because they do not necessarily need to have the same structural capacity to support a large walls above. After all, they are placed at the very top of a wall. Their functional purpose, more than anything else, is to protect the wall below from entry of elements of weather and precipitation. It serves this purpose for these elements to be longer, because longer units have a lower proportional amount of joints. Joints deteriorate faster than brick or masonry units and therefore over time, if a capstone or coping is built with very short or thin masonry units it will have more joints and as those joints wear out and weather will enter into those joints and then down into the remainder of the wall below causing deterioration and will shorten the lifespan of the wall. These areas of capstone or wall copings still require upkeep, maintenance, and pointing or repointing In timelines of 25+ to 50+ years. Pointing or repointing, as it applies to capstones or coping masonry is the process of removing the deteriorated mortar at the top of the wall at the joint between the brick or masonry units. At a horizontal area such as a wall coping, the mortar joints will deteriorate faster than almost any other area of the wall, maybe with the exception of only the base of the wall. This is an example of why, here, even in a non-historic masonry wall, preservation and restoration and pointing and repointing can be important. Small incremental amounts of maintenance and restoration, such as repointing, can extend the life of masonry for decades and even centuries. Most coping and capstone units are laid in a stretcher position, as shown in the photo above. In that stretcher position the height is generally less than units in the remainder of the structural wall below. This lower thickness / height in the structural unit means that the stone, brick, or CMU masonry element is not as strong to resist compressive forces, but that compressive strength resistance is hardly needed because there is generally no wall built on top of coping or capstones. Compressive and Tensile StrengthAlso, while it is technically true that the compressive strength of thinner unit is less than a thicker unit, compressive strength is rarely the factor that leads to failure. Tensile strength resistance, is a much greater factor in typical masonry failure than compressive strength resistance or the lack of either type of resistance. Stone, brick, concrete, all types of cement, often have very high compressive strength. It’s one of the inherent characteristics of concrete, stone and masonry. Compressive strength is the measure of a material’s ability to withstand axial loads or forces applied in a direction toward its center without permanent deformation. It is a crucial parameter in assessing the stability and load-bearing capacity of construction materials like stone, brick, and concrete. A typical retaining wall of this type, compressive strength is an important factor because each unit, especially towards the bottom, is loaded with the weight of every unit above. However, when a wall is built with units set on a staggered running pattern, the forces at the higher parts of the wall are distributed widely among several units below and typically the compressive strength of those lower units is SO high that the load above them Is small in comparison to the load of what the lower units can support. Tensile strength refers to a material’s ability to resist forces trying to pull it apart or elongate it. In the context of masonry, tensile strength is essential in evaluating how well a material can withstand stretching or pulling forces. While compressive strength measures a material’s resistance to compression or squeezing forces, tensile strength assesses its resistance to tension or pulling forces. Typically, brick, stone, and concrete have very low tensile resistance strength. The key difference between tensile and compressive forces is usually in the direction of the applied force. Compressive strength focuses on resisting forces pushing inward, while tensile strength assesses resistance to forces pulling outward. In a retaining wall, compressive strength is critical for withstanding the upper portions of tge wall it supports above, preventing crushing forces. Tensile strength becomes relevant in situations where external forces, such as ground movement or seismic activity, induce tension forces that the wall must resist. Reinforcements, like steel bars, are often added to enhance tensile strength in masonry structures, ensuring overall stability and durability. Weeps and Hydrostatic Pressure ReleifIt is wasn’t for hydrostatic pressure, retaining walls would basically almost never collapse, and fail. As explained, blocks, brick, and stone masonry can generally support the compressive strength of the wall itself without any problem at all. They are generally able to support much more than the overall load which they are engaged to support, in most cases. Tensile strength becomes a factor when there is significant differential settlement which pulls masonry units out of the regular shape and/or applies pressure to masonry units in different directions. Specifically though for retaining walls, the biggest factor or problem that leads to their overall demise, failure, or collapse, is almost always issues related to hydrostatic pressure, pointing or repointing alone will not afressd the root issues. Hydrostatic pressure stems from the presence of significant groundwater without low resistant pathways built into the wall as part of the design. As soil absorbs water, especially during periods of heavy rainfall or snowmelt, the subsoils become saturated and hydrostatic pressure builds up against the wall. This pressure increases with the depth of groundwater, becoming a substantial force that retaining walls must counteract. In comparison, the same elements of precipitation, freezing rains and/or whether with freezing temperatures are also a significant problem for brick and/or related issues of pointing anf repointing and or brick mortar joint deterioration. As those joints deteriorate, the brick facade must be protected from weather on the outside. However, although it’s essential to provide historic restoration or preservation when needed, These forces on the exterior side of a building facade are much different than the issues of hydrostatic pressure as they affect retaining walls. Repointing or pointing in mortar joint restoration is also a very tedious and laborious job, but it’s actually a little bit easier to defend against the exterior elements at a facade wall than at a retaining wall. When a retaining wall is built properly, from the beginning, there should be hydrostatic pressure relief systems behind the wall itself which allows water to flow from the upper portion of the retained ground out through the wall. The impact of hydrostatic pressure is most pronounced in situations where the groundwater level rises significantly (in storms or prolonged rainfall periods, for example), leading to a surge in lateral pressure against the wall. This force intensifies as the wall’s height increases, meaning taller walls generally bear a much higher coefficient of exposure to hydrostatic pressure. Inadequate drainage and poor relief design exacerbate the problem, heightening the risk of structural failure. The overarching consequence of hydrostatic pressure is the potential for wall destabilization and structural damage. The force exerted by the water-saturated soil can result in wall tilting, cracking, or even catastrophic failure if the pressure exceeds the wall’s load-bearing capacity. Additionally, hydrostatic pressure can induce lateral soil movement, causing erosion at the backfill and compromising the wall’s stability. Hydrostatic pressure may be difficult to visualize because we can’t see it, it’s underground and behind a wall. However imagine a lage jar full of dry sand. The pressure against the walls of the jar is relatively low because the weight and mass of the sand is generally a downward force. Some sands have a angle of repose greater than 45-degrees. This jar appears full, completely full. However, you can still add a lot of water to the jar. That water than increases the pressure against the walls of the jar significantly. That is how hydrostatic pressure works, in a jar and against a retaining wall, except the retaining wall is comparatively massive and much more susceptible. To mitigate the impact of hydrostatic pressure, effective drainage systems are crucial in retaining wall design. Properly designed weep holes or drainage pipes allow excess water to escape, reducing the build-up of hydrostatic pressure. This prevents waterlogged soil behind the wall, minimizing the lateral forces exerted on the structure. The choice of materials and construction techniques also plays a pivotal role in addressing hydrostatic pressure. Reinforced concrete walls, for instance, provide enhanced resistance to lateral forces, while retaining wall designs incorporating geogrid reinforcements help distribute loads more effectively. Additionally, backfill materials with good drainage properties can contribute to minimizing hydrostatic pressure. Regular inspections and maintenance are essential for retaining walls subjected to hydrostatic pressure. Identifying signs of distress, such as cracks, bulging, or tilting, allows for timely interventions to reinforce the structure and prevent further damage. Implementing preventive measures, such as proper drainage and stabilization methods, is a proactive approach to safeguarding retaining walls against the debilitating effects of hydrostatic pressure. The Cohesive Nature of Interlocking Concrete BlocksInterlocking concrete blocks derive their cohesive nature from specifically designed interlocking top and bottom faces. Each block is crafted with features such as interlocking lips, tongues, or grooves that facilitate a secure, in resting position, connection between adjacent blocks. These shapes create a geometric puzzle-like fit, allowing the blocks to interlock horizontally and vertically. The most common design involves a tongue-and-groove system, where one block has a protruding tongue that fits into a corresponding groove on the adjacent block. This interlocking mechanism allows for alignment, creating a cohesive and stable wall structure without the need for mortar. Additionally, some blocks incorporate setback features, where the blocks are slightly angled backward as they rise. This setback contributes to the structural integrity of the wall by providing resistance against the pressure exerted by retained soil. The cohesive nature of interlocking concrete blocks not only simplifies installation but also enhances the overall stability of the retaining wall. It minimizes the likelihood of misalignment or shifting, creating a reliable and visually pleasing solution for various landscaping and construction applications. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Interlocking CMU Retaining Walls first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/interlocking-cmu-retaining-walls/ Today we’re taking a look at an interesting building in Baltimore Maryland, the Clifton Park Valve House, also known as the Lake Clifton Gate House or Lake Clifton Valve House near the Clifton Lake. This particular building is built from granite stone with a terracotta tile roof, only partially remaining, and has a very interesting history. The historic masonry building is currently condemned and in a state of ruin, yet it is considered an endangered building. The outline of this discussion follows:
History of the Clifton Lake Valve HouseThe Clifton lake valve house is one of the oldest buildings in thus historic American city. There are several buildings that predate this building, but this is definitely one of the architectural historic buildings that should be preserved as a part of the history of the city. The building was constructed in 1887 by the Baltimore City Water Department, and it served as a gatehouse for the Clifton Park reservoir system, which provided drinking water to the city. The gatehouse controlled the flow of water and maintained the reservoir water levels. The contemporary facilities which have replaced this particular valve house are massive and elaborate by comparison. The building can be described as a massive octagonal stone structure. The gray granite stone masonry facade includes large Romanesque archways that alternate with Gothic-style windows. This combination of architectural elements adds to its visual appeal, as an industrial building built with unique architecture. We understand the original construction likely had stained glass windows which suggests that the building had decorative features and intricate detailing. The building includes a turret, which is a small tower-like structure, like many historic brick buildings in DC, that adds verticality and architectural interest to the overall otherwise compact shaped design. The tile roof was originally intricate, with ridges, gable dormers and associate valleys and ridges. The roof structure is supported by a complicated system of iron trusses, which would provide lateral support and stability to the alternating planes of the roof structure. Gothic architecture is an architectural style that emerged in Europe during the High and Late Medieval period, from the 12th to the 16th century. It is characterized by distinct design elements and construction techniques that were prevalent in the Gothic era. There are Gothic architectural styles throughout Washington DC’s historic neighborhoods. Some key features and characteristics of Gothic style architecture are listed below: Pointed Arches: One of the defining features of Gothic architecture is the use of pointed arches. These arches replaced the round arches commonly found in Romanesque architecture. Pointed arches allowed for greater height and verticality in buildings, creating a sense of upward movement and spaciousness. Ribbed Vaults and Flying Buttresses: Gothic architecture employed ribbed vaults, which are intersecting arches that create a framework of support for the ceiling or roof. These vaults distributed the weight of the structure more effectively, allowing for larger open spaces and taller buildings. Flying buttresses were exterior supports that transferred the thrust of the vaulted ceilings outward and downward, helping to counteract the lateral forces and maintain structural stability. Verticality: Gothic architecture emphasized verticality, aiming to reach higher and create a sense of spiritual aspiration. Tall and slender proportions were achieved through the use of pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and soaring spires. The vertical emphasis was further enhanced by the use of clustered columns and vertical tracery in windows. Stained Glass Windows: Gothic architecture is renowned for its expansive stained glass windows. These windows were composed of vibrant colored glass held together by intricate stone tracery. They allowed a profusion of colored light to enter the interior spaces, creating a heavenly and awe-inspiring ambiance. Ornamentation and Decoration: Gothic buildings often featured rich and intricate ornamentation. This included detailed stone carvings, sculptures, finials, and gargoyles. Decorative elements were used to embellish the facades, portals, and interiors of the buildings, showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic prowess of the time. Gothic architecture often employed ashlar granite stone masonry construction, such as at this valve house in Clifton Park, and particularly in the construction of cathedrals, churches, and other monumental structures. Granite is a type of igneous rock known for its durability and strength, making it well-suited for construction purposes. It is composed of interlocking mineral crystals, primarily quartz, feldspar, and mica. Granite’s hardness and resistance to weathering made it a preferred choice for monumental structures in Gothic architecture. Granite stoneworks can be cut with modern power tools, but it is particularly difficult to break, compared to other common stones in the DC area such as limestone and sandstone. The ashlar granite masonry provided structural stability to Gothic buildings. The fitting of stones and the interlocking rectilinear nature of the construction added strength and stability against lateral forces. This was particularly important for tall and wide, in the case of the Clifton Park example, structures with vaulted ceilings, as it helped distribute the weight of the building evenly. What it means to be an endangered buildingSimilar to Washington, DC’s Preservation Leauge some of the literally thousands of historic buildings in ruin in Baltimore, a handful are listed by organizations like Preservation Maryland as buildings which are desired to be preserved. Here on our website, we often discuss the concern about building deterioration and particularly unique elements of historic architecture that are being lost to deterioration in Washington DC. By comparison the city of Baltimore has an incredible amount of historic buildings that are withering away, in ruin. Once they are gone, they will not be replaced with something of real historic significance. Once that history is lost it’s lost to all of us, forever. It’s worth preserving the historic buildings in DC and in oher historic cities on the east coast of America. However, before we wake up and recognize this unique opportunity it will likely be too late. Preservation Maryland explains: “Baltimore City has done little to tend to the maintenance needs of the building over the years. The steel roof truss system is rusting away which has led to the loss of number roof tiles, and the stain glass windows are all but gone. The Department of Recreation and Parks has a hard time maintaining the structures in their care that get used on a regular basis, so there are no funds available for maintenance on the Valve House. To remain viable the building needs to remain functional in the 21st century.” The apathy and mindset of poverty is incredibly sad. The reality is that funds are available, but have been given away as tax cuts to the wealthiest of us. What it means to be an endangered building is that the building will likely not be saved nor will be around much longer. Ashlar vs. Rubble MasonryRubble masonry, an assembly of irregularly shaped stones held together with mortar, was often because of its cost-effectiveness, speed of assembly and adaptability. In contrast to the precise workmanship of ashlar masonry, rubble masonry’s advantage is just in the speed and therefore lower cost of construction, and the more readily available accessibility of local materials. The stability of rubble masonry assemblies are dependent more on the characteristics of the mortar and the quality of application. This construction style is prevalent in historic building foundations in DC because of the ease of sourcing local materials, cost-effectiveness, and its ability to conform to varying ground conditions. Rubble masonry predates ashlar masonry in terms of historical usage. The earliest known uses of rubble masonry can be traced back to ancient civilizations where irregularly shaped stones were used in construction. In ancient times, builders employed local materials and simple techniques, resulting in the use of uncut or minimally shaped stones bonded with mortar. Examples of early uses of rubble masonry can be found in ancient structures such as megalithic tombs, where large, uncut stones were arranged to form burial chambers. Additionally, early city walls and fortifications often utilized rubble masonry due to its simplicity and the availability of raw materials. On the other hand, ashlar masonry, identified by precisely cut and dressed stones laid in regular courses, emerged later in architectural history. Its widespread use became prominent during periods like Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, showcasing a higher level of craftsmanship and precision. The Parthenon in Athens, constructed in the 5th century BCE, is an early example of ashlar masonry, showcasing the refined and symmetrical appearance made possible by precisely cut stones. Details of the Structural constructionThe structural elements of the building are relatively straightforward. Unlike some more contemporary type or styles of buildings there are no cantilevered elements or elements that are suspended with bearing using horizontal load transfer. We talked about the fact that this building is octagonal shaped common meaning that the walls meet at 135° angles. The interior angles of a regular octagon sum up to 1,080 degrees. Since all angles are equal in a regular octagon, this total sum can be divided by the number of angles. In this case, dividing 1,080 by 8 angles yields 135 degrees for each individual angle in an octagon. Therefore, each angle within a regular octagon measures 135 degrees. As we discussed. both Gothic and Roman arches are used at the window and door or portal openings of the building. The structural implications of a Gothic arch and a Roman arch, also known as a rounded arch, differ slightly The Gothic arch, with its pointed shape, is a hallmark of Gothic architecture and contributes to a vertical aesthetic emphasis. This design allows for a more vertical rise in each respective opening as well. In contrast, the Roman arch, with its semicircular header, creates a broad and rounded profile. From a structural perspective the load path around a Roman arch spreads and applies more horizontally. Roman arches often rest on solid piers or columns, emphasizing stability through mass. This architectural style allows for the support of expansive spaces, such as domes and barrel vaults, creating an open and horizontally oriented environment. Framing of the roofA typical hip octagonal roof is framed, principally with hip and jack rafters. The hip rafters run at each of the 8 hips. Normally, and a typical hip roof where there is a ridge, common rafters run perpendicular to the ridge. In this case though as all 8 rafters hip rafters were to meet at the cupola area of the roof instead of a ridge, there would be no common rafters, between each hip rafter that it would instead be Jack rafters. However, this particular building doesn’t follow any of the typical rules because the framing of the roof is done with steel and not typical carpentry and wood. It’s likely that the building was built with steel instead of wood because of the extra large spans. Unlike a typical regular sized building used for commercial, offices, and even residential purposes, this building is many times larger and has much greater distances and spans between the runs of the roofing elements. It was then and still is difficult to procure and source very long and large timbers and beams. Iron tie web to provide spread restraintThe use of an iron tie web in the wood framing of a large octagonal roof serves the purpose of providing spread restraint and structural stability. In an octagonal roof, the complex geometry and expansive spans can lead to outward thrust forces that need to be controlled to prevent the structure from spreading or collapsing. An iron tie web is a structural element that helps address these forces. Spread restraint refers to the prevention of the roof structure from spreading outward. In an octagonal roof, the horizontal forces generated by the weight of the roof and external loads can exert pressure on the supporting walls. The iron tie web acts as a tie beam, resisting these outward forces and maintaining the structural integrity of the roof. The iron tie web is typically installed at the lower portion of the roof structure, connecting the bottom chords of the roof trusses or rafters. It functions as a tension member, absorbing the horizontal forces and converting them into compression forces within the iron member, a form of compression restraint. Iron was, in this case, chosen for its high strength and load-bearing capacity, and because iron was one of the few materials available at the time which was not limited or constrained in length or could be connected effectively without a significant reduction in strength capacity. It can effectively withstand tension forces, providing an effective solution for restraining the spread of the roof structure. The iron tie web is built with diagonal bracing at almost each perimeter connection point. Diagonal members are strategically placed within the roof framing to form triangles, a geometric configuration that enhances stability. These diagonal braces resist lateral forces and contribute to the overall rigidity of the roof system. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Clifton Park Valve House first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/clifton-park-valve-house/ This past week we started a really exciting series on historic brickmaking for which we went and took a look at a traditional type of brick making process, very similar to the historic methodologies used here in the United States over a 120 years ago. The outline of this article follows. Today, we will discuss items #4-7 from the outline below:
We start today, by talking about the steps in how bricks are actually created. Steps in the Process of Preparing for Historic Brick FiringThe historic process of making bricks shares some fundamental steps with contemporary methods, and the steps in the brick making process are relatively simple, to someone, if they’ve done pottery or ceramics in an art class, for example. Just like in pottery or ceramics, the moist clay is flexible and pliable, it can be moulded and shaped into a desired form. The wet clay In this condition is called plug. However, before that clay can be formed and moulded it has to be harvested from the Earth. The notable differences, between the historic and modern processes are mainly in the power or fuel sources and the tools and technology used. When you look at all the pictures in the series, you’ll also see many differences in the kiln assemblies, but those differences have a limited effect of the consistency that vary between the historic and contemporary processes. The typical steps in the historic process of making bricks:
Historic brickmaking relied on manual tools and simple wooden molds. In contrast, contemporary processes often involve mechanized equipment, automated molding machines, and advanced kiln technology for precision and efficiency. Historic methods involved manual extraction and preparation of clay, whereas contemporary processes may use heavy machinery and automated systems for these steps. Historic brickmakers relied on natural air drying, which is a slow process. In contemporary methods, controlled drying environments, such as heated chambers, are used to expedite the drying process. Historic brick kilns typically used wood or other organic materials as fuel. In modern brickmaking, various fuel sources, including natural gas and electricity, are employed for firing. Historic brickmakers had limited tools for quality control, and the product’s consistency could vary. Contemporary processes involve rigorous quality control measures, standardized testing, and adherence to specific industry standards. Historic brickmaking was often localized and small-scale, serving immediate community needs, in small markets. Contemporary brick production is typically larger in scale, catering to regional or even global markets. While the fundamental steps in making bricks remain consistent over time, the shift from historic to contemporary processes reflects advancements in technology, scale of production, and the standardization of quality control measures in the modern construction industry. Historic Brick Firing and VitreousnessVitreousness is a characteristic generally used in relation to homogenity and bond between the smallest units of materials in the brick. Glass for example it’s mostly comprised silica but has been heated to a temperature that has made the substrate materials become vitreous, In that vitreous state the glass is then impermeable. Ceramic tile is very similar, most types of ceramic tileI have some degree of vitreousness, but they are not always entirely vitreous. Glaze helps tile achieve its level of “waterproof-ness”, to a large extent, especially in the cases of semi-vitreous kiln fired clays. Essentially, when clay is fired at a relatively or comparatively lower temperature it will reach a degree of vitreousness but it will not necessarily be completely vitreous. Porcelain, by comparison, is made of very similar substrate materials but is fired at a higher temperature and happens to have a comparatively high degree of vitreousness. Porcelain, for example, will be almost impermeable. Terracotta, on the other hand, is a type of kiln fired clay material that most Americans are relatively familiar with, as it is commonly used for retail goods like flower pots. Terracotta can even be found in big box store alrernatives like luttle mom-and’pops stores. Whereas if you were to buy a brick In most cases you’d have to go to either a big box store or a commercial or industrial supply brickyard, or a large-scale distribution location. Terracotta though, can be purchased at almost any small mom-and-pop garden store or even a corner hardware store. They even sell flowers in terracotta pots at the local grocery store In Capitol Hill, DC. Typically, the red color of a fired brick a reaction of the brick’s iron oxide composition. Hematite is a form of iron oxide found in clay and earthen soils, Fe2O3. Sometime hematite, in mineral form, is rendered to be used a reddish paint in pottery and earthenware. Like clinker bricks, which are different, but also culled from a firing process, the failed bricks in the photo above which are either cracked, deformed, or broken in some way, are set aside but not necessarily discarded in all cases. In some cases those rejected or culled bricks can be used again or recycled into future bricks. A significant portion of bricks are also used in the brick making process to stack and separate the drying bricks from the soil below. Brick Hardness and why it Matters, CounterintuitivelyIntuitively, there is a common perception that harder and stronger materials are inherently better, especially in the context of construction and building materials. This expectation aligns with the logical assumption that stronger materials would generally offer superior performance. However, this principle doesn’t perfectly apply to bricks. For both historic and contemporary bricks, the firing process plays a crucial role in determining several of their key performance properties. When bricks are fired at higher temperatures, they exhibit a higher degree of vitrification and increased compressive strength. Vitrification refers to the transformation of the brick’s composition into a glassy or non-porous state. This results in bricks with reduced permeability compared to those fired at lower temperatures. Additionally, higher vitrification contributes to a more solid structure, yielding a slightly higher tensile strength. Despite their intrinsic advantages in compressive strength and vitrification, bricks, along with other silica-based earthen materials such as concrete, stone, and stucco, share a common limitation—they have relatively weak tensile strength. Tensile strength is the ability of a material to resist a force trying to bend it or pull it apart. In the case of bricks, their tensile strength is notably low. This inherent weakness in tensile strength poses challenges in applications where materials may be subjected to pulling or stretching forces. While bricks intrinsically have very high compressive force resistance, bricks are intrinsically weak in tensile strenghth. They are prone to cracking or breaking when subjected to tensile forces. This characteristic is a fundamental aspect of the nature of silica-based earthen materials and is not unique to bricks alone. However when an assembly is properly designed, brick masonry is not exposed to extreme tensile forces and this issue is very limited. To overcome this limitation, builders often employ design strategies that distribute loads more evenly or incorporate materials with higher tensile strength in conjunction with bricks. Reinforcement with materials like steel or the use of structural elements that bear tension, such as arches or lintels, helps compensate for the weak tensile strength of bricks. Understanding the nuanced properties of building materials allows architects and engineers to make informed decisions, balancing the desirable attributes of hardness and compressive strength with the need to address tensile forces in a comprehensive and effective manner. Compressive strength, in contrast to tensile strength, as it applies to bricks and masonry, representing the material’s ability to withstand axial loads or forces applied perpendicular to its surface. In the context of bricks, compressive strength is a measure of their resistance to crushing or deformation under pressure. When bricks are subjected to vertical loads, such as the weight of a structure or additional loads from above, their compressive strength determines their capacity to withstand these forces without collapsing or breaking. Higher firing temperatures during the brick manufacturing process often result in increased compressive strength, making the bricks more resistant to crushing. This property is vital in ensuring the structural integrity of masonry constructions, as it influences the load-bearing capacity and durability of the entire assembly. Engineers and architects carefully consider compressive strength when selecting bricks for various applications, aiming to match the material’s capacity with the anticipated loads the structure will bear. Additionally, the understanding of compressive strength guides the design and construction of masonry elements, ensuring they meet safety standards and contribute to the stability and longevity of the built environment. Repointing Historic Brick MasonryRepointing historic brickwork with new lime mortar is a meticulous process that prioritizes the preservation of structural integrity and authenticity in heritage buildings. Lime mortar, traditionally used in historic masonry, is specifically made for its compatibility with old bricks, allowing for modulus of elasticity and permeability to prevent damage for natural micro-movement and greater movement and pressures during freeze-thaw cycles. Modern mortar can be too rigid and lead to long-term damage to the bricks of a building. Before repointing, a contractor who ks skilled and knowledgeable on the extensive requirements of this work must conduct an assessment of the existing mortar. Correcting previous mistakes, such as the use of inappropriate materials, is extremely complicated in some cases but may be necessary. The old deteriorated mortar is then removed at the wall surface and new lime mortar is applied through a repointing process. This work must be conducted under proper environmental conditions with attention to pre-hydration and proper mixture of the mortar. Repointing us needed to preserve the historic facades of the building, with the application of ongoing maintenance without compromising authenticity. Regular inspection and maintenance are crucial to monitor and address signs of deterioration promptly. Overall, repointing with lime mortar contributes to the sustained beauty and structural stability of the historic brick buildings of Washington, DC. Overall, brick repointing is a central part of the historic masonry preservation process, but repointing a brick facade alone is not the only element required in full-scale facade restoration. Other types of stone and facade restoration elements are required to keep a building both weatherproof and in good shape for the long-term. Deterioration of historic buildings happens in a gradual but non linear form. This nonlinear relationship is reflected in the fact that as elements of a building go without proper care and or restoration or preservation, their respective deterioration continues but increases at an increasing rate. So not only does it get worse, but it declines faster and faster an increasing rate. We often, in our blogs on restoration and preservation mention the fact that the curve of deterioration, particularly with a focus on historic masonry elements, increases faster and faster, without proper ongoing care. Historic masonry upkeep and preservationTo properly maintain, repair, and care for these historic buildings, a knowledge, interest and understanding of historic building principles is required. Here in Washington DC, historic masonry buildings are extremely expensive and the amount of financial loss caused by improper repointing and low quality construction is staggering. However, in addition to the direct financial value of the property, there is also a cultural loss when historic buildings are damaged. By comparison, consider neighboring poor cities, when historic buildings are damaged, it’s not just the loss of value to the property owner, there’s also a loss to all inhabitants and visitors of a city, present and future, who care about architecture, history, and culture. We encourage all of our clients, and all readers of this article and to our blog in general, to prioritize the historic built environment of Washington DC and neighborhoods such as Capitol Hill, Dupont Circle, and Georgetown and become educated on on the difference between proper historic preservation versus improper work which leads to significant damage to the historic fabric of a building. From a conservation and preservation perspective, several approaches can be taken to improve conditions related to deteriorated historic brick masonry. Primarily, lime mortar brick joints and low temperature fired soft red clay bricks should be inspected and checked on a routine maintenance schedule, either seasonally or at least annually. If brick masonry is kept in good condition, the life of embedded wood elements can be significantly extended. Hire a professional contractor which specializes, understands and appreciates historic construction elements and buildings. You can learn a lot more on our blog. Feel free to check it out. If you have questions about the historic masonry of your building in Washington DC, contact us or fill out the webform below and drop us a line. We will be in touch if we can help. <p>The post Traditional Brickmaking – Part II first appeared on Infinity Design Solutions.</p> Via https://www.ids-dmv.com/masonry/traditional-brickmaking-part-ii/ |
About UsInfinity Design Solutions LLC (IDS) is a full service general contracting company in the heart of the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, DC. We focus on repair and renovation of buildings and facilities in both historic designated neighborhoods and the commercial-zoned central business district of the city. Follow Us
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